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{{Wikipedia}} {{Decadebox}} {{VG History|expandmenu=1}} [[Mainframe computer]]s are [[computer]]s used primarily by businesses and academic institutions for large-scale processes. Before [[personal computer]]s, first termed [[microcomputer]]s, became widely available to the general public in the 1970s, the computing industry was composed of mainframe computers and the relatively smaller and cheaper [[minicomputer]] variant. During the mid to late 1960s, many [[early history of video games|early video games]] were programmed on these computers. Developed prior to the rise of the commercial [[video game industry]] in the early 1970s, these '''early mainframe games''' were generally written by students or employees at large corporations in a machine or assembly language that could only be understood by the specific machine or computer type they were [[software development|developed]] on. While many of these games were lost as older computers were discontinued, some of them were [[porting|ported]] to high-level computer languages like [[BASIC]], had expanded versions later released for personal computers, or were recreated for [[bulletin board system]]s years later, thus influencing future games and developers. Early computer games began to be created in the 1950s, and the steady increase in the number and abilities of computers over time led to the gradual loosening of restrictions on access to mainframe computers at academic and corporate institutions beginning in the 1960s. This in turn led to a modest proliferation of generally small, text-based games on mainframe computers, with increasing complexity towards the end of the decade. While games continued to be developed on mainframes and minicomputers through the 1970s, the rise of personal computers and the spread of high-level programming languages meant that later games were generally intended to or were capable of being run on personal computers, even when developed on a mainframe. These early games include ''[[Hamurabi]]'', an antecedent of the [[strategy video game|strategy]] and [[City-building game|city-building]] genres; ''[[Lunar Lander]]'', which inspired numerous recreations in the 1970s and 1980s; ''[[Civil War]]'', an early war simulation game; ''[[Star Trek (1971)|Star Trek]]'', which was widely ported, expanded, and spread for decades after; ''[[Space Travel]]'', which played a role in the creation of the [[Unix]] [[operating system]]; and ''[[Baseball]]'', an early [[sports game]] and the first baseball game to allow player control during a game. ==Background== [[File:IBM System360 Model 30.jpg|thumb|right|A 1965 [[IBM System/360|IBM System/360 Model 30]] [[mainframe computer]] at the [[Computer History Museum]]]] [[Mainframe computer]]s are powerful [[computer]]s used primarily by large organizations for computational work, especially large-scale, multi-user processes. The term originally referred to the large cabinets called "main frames" that housed the [[central processing unit]] and main [[computer memory|memory]] of early computers. Prior to the rise of [[personal computer]]s, first termed [[microcomputer]]s, in the 1970s, they were the primary type of computer in use, and at the beginning of the 1960s they were the only type of computer available for public purchase.<ref name="namesource"/><ref name="comptypes"/> [[Minicomputer]]s were relatively smaller and cheaper mainframe computers prevalent in the 1960s and 1970s, though they were still not intended for personal use. One definition from 1970 required a minicomputer to cost less than US$25,000.<ref name="Smith 1970"/> In contrast, regular mainframes could cost more than US$1,000,000.<ref name="comptypes"/> By the end of the 1960s, mainframe computers and minicomputers were present in many academic research institutions and large companies such as [[Bell Labs]].<ref name="comptypes"/><ref name="ST_BL"/> While the commercial [[video game industry]] did not yet exist at that point in the [[early history of video games]] and would not until the early 1970s, programmers at these companies created several small games to be played on their mainframe computers. Most of these spread only to other users of the same type of computer and therefore did not persist as older computer models were discontinued; several, however, inspired future games, or were later released in modified versions on more modern systems or languages.<ref name="KSmainframe"/> These early mainframe games were largely created between 1968 and 1971; while earlier games were created they were limited to small, academic audiences. Mainframe games also continued to be developed through the 1970s, but the rise of the commercial video game industry, focused on [[arcade games|arcade video games]] and [[home video game console]]s, followed by the rise of personal computers later in the decade, meant that beginning in the 1970s the audience and developers of video games began to shift away from mainframe computers or minicomputers, and the spread of general-purpose programming languages such as the [[BASIC]] programming language meant that later mainframe games could generally be run on personal computers with minimal changes, even if initially developed on a mainframe.<ref name="TIME"/> ==Early games== The very first computer games began to appear in the 1950s, starting with ''[[Bertie the Brain]]'', a computer-based game of [[tic-tac-toe]] built by [[Josef Kates|Dr. Josef Kates]] for the 1950 [[Canadian National Exhibition]].<ref name="CNE"/> While the status of these games as video games depends on the definition used, the games developed during this time period ran on the large antecedents of mainframe computers and were primarily developed for the purposes of academic research or to showcase the technological development of the computers on which they ran. Access to these computers, located almost exclusively in universities and research institutions, was restricted to academics and researchers, preventing any development of entertainment programs. Over the course of the decade, computer technology improved to include smaller, transistor-based computers on which programs could be created and run in real time, rather than operations run in batches, and computers themselves spread to more locations.<ref name="Replay50s"/> By the 1960s, improvements in computing technology and the early development of relatively cheaper mainframe computers, which would later be termed minicomputers, led to the loosening of restrictions regarding programming access to the computers. At the [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]] (MIT), access to the [[TX-0]] experimental computer was opened to students and employees of the university. This in turn led to the development of programs that in addition to highlighting the power of the computer also contained an entertainment aspect. The games created for the TX-0 by the small programming community at MIT included ''Tic-Tac-Toe'', which used a [[light pen]] to play a simple game of noughts and crosses against the computer, and ''Mouse in the Maze'', which let players set up a maze for a mouse to run through.<ref name="Mouse"/><ref name="cc"/><ref name="TCMR-V08"/> When the [[Digital Equipment Corporation]] (DEC) [[PDP-1]] computer was installed at MIT in 1961, the community built a video game to showcase its abilities, ''[[Spacewar!]]'', which then became the first known video game to spread beyond a single computer installation as it was copied and recreated on other PDP-1 systems and later on other mainframe computers.<ref name="cc"/><ref name="UDG"/> Over the course of the decade, computers spread to more and more companies and institutions, even as they became more powerful—by 1971, it is estimated that there were over 1000 computers with monitors, rather than the few dozen at the beginning of the 1960s.<ref name="KINso"/> While different computers could generally not run the same programs without significant changes to the programs' code, due to differences in the physical [[computer hardware|hardware]] or [[machine code|machine languages]], the expansion of the computing industry led to the creation of catalogs and user groups to share programs between different installations of the same series of computers, such as DEC's PDP line. These catalogs and groups, such as the [[IBM]] program catalog and the Digital Equipment Computer Users' Society ([[DECUS]]), shared small games as well as programs, including, for example, "BBC Vik The Baseball Demonstrator" and "Three Dimensional Tic-Tack-Toe" in the April 1962 IBM catalog,<ref name="Catalog"/> and dice games and question and answer games in the DECUS newsletter.<ref name="Dice"/><ref name="Socratic"/> Mainframe games were developed outside of the IBM and DEC communities as well, such as the 1962 Polish ''[[Marienbad]]'' for the [[Odra (computer)|Odra 1003]].<ref name="Marienbad"/> By the latter half of the 1960s, higher-level programming languages such as BASIC which were able to be run on multiple types of computers further increased the reach of games developed at any given location. While most games were limited to text-based designs, rather than visual graphics like ''[[Spacewar!]]'', these games became more complicated as they reached more players, such as baseball and basketball simulation games.<ref name="Baseball"/><ref name="Baseball2"/><ref name="Basketball"/> Access to the computers themselves was also extended to more people by systems such as the [[Dartmouth Time Sharing System]] (DTSS), which connected several thousand users through many remote terminals to a central mainframe computer. By the 1967–68 school year the DTSS library of 500 programs for the system included, [[John G. Kemeny|John Kemeny]] and [[Thomas Kurtz]] wrote, "many games". Over a quarter of the system's usage was for casual or entertainment purposes, which Kemeny and Kurtz welcomed as helping users to become familiar with and not fear the computer. They noted that "we have lost many a distinguished visitor for several hours while he quarterbacked the [[Wikipedia:Dartmouth Big Green football|Dartmouth football team]] in a highly realistic simulated game".<ref name="dtss196810"/><ref name="dtssbrochure"/> ==''101 BASIC Computer Games''== [[File:PDP-8.jpg|thumb|right|A [[PDP-8]] [[minicomputer]] on display at the [[National Museum of American History]]]] In 1971, DEC employee [[David H. Ahl]] converted two minicomputer games, ''[[Hamurabi]]'' and ''[[Lunar Lander (video game genre)|Lunar Lander]]'', from the [[FOCAL (programming language)|FOCAL]] language to BASIC, partially as a demonstration of the language on the DEC [[PDP-8]] minicomputer. Their popularity led him to start printing BASIC games in the DEC newsletter he edited, both ones he wrote and reader submissions. In 1973, he published ''[[101 BASIC Computer Games]]'', containing descriptions and the [[source code]] for video games written in BASIC. The games included were written by both Ahl and others, and included both games original to the language and [[porting|ported]] from other languages such as FOCAL. Many of these ports were originally mainframe computer games. ''101 BASIC Computer Games'' was a best seller with more than 10,000 copies sold, more sales than computers in existence at the time. Its second edition in 1978, ''BASIC Computer Games'', was the first million-selling computer book. As such, the BASIC ports of mainframe computer games included in the book were often more long-lived than their original versions or other mainframe computer games.<ref name="TIME"/> ''Hamurabi'' in particular is mostly known for its appearance in Ahl's book. The original game, a [[text-based game|text-based]] [[strategy video game]] of land and [[resource management]], was [[software development|developed]] by Doug Dyment at DEC in 1968 as ''The Sumer Game''. Dyment created it as a computer game for fellow employee [[Richard Merrill]]'s newly invented FOCAL programming language.<ref name="DEC73"/> The game consists of ten rounds wherein the player, as the ancient Babylonian king [[Hammurabi]], manages how much of their grain to spend on crops for the next round, feeding their people, and purchasing additional land, while dealing with random variations in crop yields and plagues. Multiple versions of the game were created for the FOCAL and [[FOCAL-69]] languages,<ref name="DEC73-2"/><ref name="DEC78"/> but an expanded, uncredited version of the game was included in ''101 BASIC Computer Games'' as ''Hamurabi'', and later versions of the game, even in FOCAL, referenced the new title over the old.<ref name="DEC78"/><ref name="ahl_HAM"/> ''Hamurabi'' influenced many later strategy and simulation games and is an antecedent to the [[city-building game|city-building genre]].<ref name="HAM_ARS"/> The other game Ahl originally ported to BASIC, ''Lunar Lander'', appeared in the book in three different forms. The original version of the game was called ''Lunar'', and was originally written in FOCAL for the PDP-8 by Jim Storer while a high school student in the fall of 1969.<ref name="lunar_tech"/><ref name="lunar_comp"/> A different version called ''Rocket'' was written in BASIC by Eric Peters at DEC, and a third version, ''LEM'', was written by William Labaree II in BASIC. Ahl converted Jim Storer's FOCAL version to BASIC, changed some of the text, and published it in his newsletter. A year or so later, all three BASIC versions of the game appeared in ''[[101 BASIC Computer Games]]'', under the names [[ROCKET]] (Storer version), [[ROCKT1]] (Peters version), and [[ROCKT2]] (Labaree version). All three text-based games required the player to control a rocket attempting to land on the moon by entering instructions to the rocket in response to the textual summary of its current position and heading relative to the ground.<ref name="Ahl_LUNAR"/> Ahl and Steve North converted all three versions to [[Microsoft BASIC]], changed the collective name to ''Lunar Lander'', and published them in ''[[Creative Computing]]'' magazine in 1976; that name was used in the 1978 edition of ''[[BASIC Computer Games]]''.<ref name="Ahl_LUNAR"/> [[File:Star Trek text game.png|thumb|right|Modern recreation of ''[[Star Trek (1971)|Star Trek]]'', running in a [[Linux]] command terminal]] Another game from the book is ''Civil War'', a text-based computer game that puts the player against the computer in a simulation of the [[American Civil War]]. ''Civil War'' originated on multi-user mainframe computers in 1968, and simulates fourteen major battles of the conflict, with the human player as the [[Confederate States of America|South]] and the computer as the [[Union (American Civil War)|North]]. The player can control four direct variables which interact to determine a battle's outcome: how much of their money to spend on food, salaries, and ammunition, and which of four offensive or four defensive strategies to use. The side with the fewest casualties wins a battle, and if the player wins eight or more battles they win the game.<ref name="Ahl_CIVWAR"/><ref name="Games_TEE"/> After appearing in ''101 BASIC Computer Games'',<ref name="Ahl_CIVWAR"/> ''Civil War'' was later one of a number of text-based games available on early 1980s pay-to-play systems.<ref name="CV_HS"/> Possibly the most popular of the mainframe games that appeared in Ahl's book was ''[[Star Trek (1971)|Star Trek]]''. The game is a text-based computer game that puts the player in command of the [[Starship Enterprise|Starship ''Enterprise'']] on a mission to hunt down and destroy an invading fleet of [[Klingon]] warships. Unlike the other text-based games, however, it did not use written responses to player input, but instead had [[character (computing)|character]]-based graphics, with different characters used as graphical symbols to represent objects.<ref name="Games_TEE"/> It was initially developed by Mike Mayfield in 1971 on an [[SDS Sigma series|SDS Sigma 7]] mainframe.<ref name="TVGG"/> The game was also unlike many of the other mainframe games in the book in that it was originally written in BASIC; by the time the book was published, it had been widely copied among minicomputer and mainframe systems and modified into several versions. It was one of these, renamed by Ahl as ''Space War'', that appeared in ''101 BASIC Computer Games''. The 1978 version of the book contained a [[Microsoft BASIC]] port of ''Super Star Trek'', an expanded version of the game first written in 1974, and this version was ported to numerous personal computer systems of the era; Ahl stated in the book that it was difficult to find a computer installation that did not contain a version of ''Star Trek''.<ref name="ahl_STAR"/> Multiple updated versions in a wide variety of languages have been made since. By 1980, ''Star Trek'' was described by ''[[Dragon (magazine)|The Dragon]]'' magazine as "one of the most popular (if not ''the'' most popular) computer games around", with "literally scores of different versions of this game floating around".<ref name="Games_TEE"/> ==Other games== [[File:Space Travel Screenshot.png|thumb|right|Gameplay image of ''[[Space Travel]]'']] Some mainframe games that did not appear in ''101 BASIC Computer Games'' have still had a lasting impact. One such game was ''[[Space Travel]]'', developed by [[Ken Thompson]] in 1969, which [[simulation video game|simulates]] travel in the [[Solar System]]. The player flies their ship around a two-dimensional scale model of the solar system with no objectives other than to attempt to land on various planets and moons. The player can move and turn the ship, and adjust the overall speed by adjusting the scale of the simulation. The ship is affected by the single strongest [[gravity|gravitational pull]] of the astronomical bodies.<ref name="ST_BL"/> The game was developed at Bell Labs, and was ported during 1969 from the [[Multics]] [[operating system]] to the [[General Comprehensive Operating System|GECOS]] operating system on the [[GE-600 series|GE 635]] computer, and then to the [[PDP-7]] minicomputer.<ref name="ST_BL"/><ref name="ST_Harvard"/> While porting the game to the PDP-7, Thompson developed ideas for his own operating system, which later formed the core of the [[Unix]] operating system.<ref name="ST_Harvard"/><ref name="ST_Byte"/> ''Space Travel'' never spread beyond Bell Labs or had an effect on future games, leaving its primary legacy as part of the original push for the development of Unix.<ref name="ST_Byte"/> {{anchor|Baseball}} Another influential early mainframe game was ''Baseball'', a [[sports game]] that was created on a [[PDP-10]] minicomputer at [[Pomona College]] in 1971 by English major [[Don Daglow]].<ref name="baseball_GD"/> ''Baseball'' was the first baseball video game that allowed players to manage the game as it unfolded, rather than just picking players at the beginning of a game.<ref name="POMbaseball"/> The program is documented at the [[National Baseball Hall of Fame and Museum]] in [[Cooperstown, New York]].<ref name="GDE"/> ''Baseball'' was continually updated through 1974, and distributed to other PDP-10 installations.<ref name="POMbaseball"/><ref name="GDW"/> The text-based game had each player control the pitcher or the batter; they would enter their intention to, for example, pitch to or walk the batter, or switch hitters. The batting player could direct on-base players to steal, and the batter to hit. The results of the play would be printed out onto paper as a verbose description, like a radio description of the game. Daglow went on to develop more sophisticated baseball games in 1983 with ''[[Intellivision World Series Baseball]]'', and 1987 with ''[[Earl Weaver Baseball]]'', as well as numerous other games.<ref name="POMbaseball"/><ref name="GDE"/> ==References== {{Reflist|30em|refs= <ref name="namesource">''Introduction to the New Mainframe'', pp. 4–6</ref> <ref name="comptypes">{{Cite web |last=Beach |first=Thomas E. |title=Computer Concepts and Terminology: Types of Computers |url=http://www.unm.edu/~tbeach/terms/types.html |publisher=[[University of New Mexico]] |accessdate=2016-02-16 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150730182332/http://www.unm.edu/~tbeach/terms/types.html |archivedate=2015-07-30 |deadurl=yes}}</ref> <ref name="Smith 1970">{{Cite news |title=Maxi Computers Face Mini Conflict: Mini Trend Reaching Computers |last=Smith |first=William D. |newspaper=[[The New York Times]] |date=1970-04-05 |page=125 |url=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=9E06E2DE1F3EE236A05756C0A9629C946190D6CF |accessdate=2016-02-16}}</ref> <ref name="KSmainframe">{{Cite web |url=https://killscreen.com/articles/rediscovered-mainframe-game-from-1974-might-first-text-adventure/ |title=A rediscovered mainframe game from 1974 might be the first text adventure |last=Tanbusch |first=Savanah |date=2015-05-01 |work=[[Kill Screen]] |accessdate=2016-02-18 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160218211341/https://killscreen.com/articles/rediscovered-mainframe-game-from-1974-might-first-text-adventure/ |archivedate=2016-02-18 |deadurl=yes}}</ref> <ref name="TIME">{{Cite web |url=http://time.com/69316/basic/ |title=Fifty Years of BASIC, the Programming Language That Made Computers Personal |work=[[Time (magazine)|Time]] |last=McCracken |first=Harry |date=2014-04-29 |accessdate=2016-02-12 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160205214236/http://time.com/69316/basic/ |archivedate=2016-02-05 |deadurl=no}}</ref> <ref name="CNE">{{Cite news |first=Marlene |last=Simmons |title=Bertie the Brain programmer heads science council |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=rKYyAAAAIBAJ&sjid=pe0FAAAAIBAJ&pg=916,3790974&dq=josef-kates&hl=en |accessdate=2014-11-16 |newspaper=[[Ottawa Citizen]] |date=1975-10-09 |page=17}}</ref> <ref name="Mouse">{{Cite web |url=https://videogamehistorian.wordpress.com/2014/07/10/people-get-ready-theres-a-train-a-coming/ |title=People Get Ready, There's a Train A-Coming |work=They Create Worlds |last=Smith |first=Alexander |date=2014-07-10 |accessdate=2015-12-18 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20151222172451/https://videogamehistorian.wordpress.com/2014/07/10/people-get-ready-theres-a-train-a-coming/ |archivedate=2015-12-22 |deadurl=no}}</ref> <ref name="TCMR-V08">{{Cite journal |title=The TX-0: Its Past and Present |journal=The Computer Museum Report |url=http://www.bitsavers.org/pdf/mit/tx-0/TX-0_history_1984.txt |publisher=[[The Computer Museum, Boston|The Computer Museum]] |volume=8 |date=Spring 1984}}</ref> <ref name="cc">{{Cite journal |title=The origin of Spacewar |journal=[[Creative Computing]] |url=http://www.wheels.org/spacewar/creative/SpacewarOrigin.html |date=August 1981 |first=J. M. |last=Graetz |volume=6 |issue=8 |issn=0097-8140}}</ref> <ref name="UDG">''Understanding Digital Games'', p. 22</ref> <ref name="Catalog">{{Cite web |title=Catalog of Programs for IBM Data Processing Systems |publisher=[[IBM]] |date=April 1962 |url=http://bitsavers.org/pdf/ibm/pgmCatalog/C20-8090_Catalog_of_Programs_for_IBM_Data_Processing_Systems_KWIC_Index_Apr62.pdf |accessdate=2015-12-18 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150422032529/http://bitsavers.trailing-edge.com/pdf/ibm/pgmCatalog/C20-8090_Catalog_of_Programs_for_IBM_Data_Processing_Systems_KWIC_Index_Apr62.pdf |archivedate=2015-04-22 |deadurl=no}}</ref> <ref name="Socratic">{{Cite web |title=1963 Papers and Proceedings of the Digital Equipment Computer Users Society |url=http://bitsavers.org/pdf/dec/decus/confProceedings/DECUS_1963.pdf |publisher=[[DECUS|Digital Equipment Computer Users Society]] |date=1964 |pages=205–213 |accessdate=2015-12-18 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150829135823/http://bitsavers.informatik.uni-stuttgart.de/pdf/dec/decus/confProceedings/DECUS_1963.pdf |archivedate=2015-08-29 |deadurl=no}}</ref> <ref name="Dice">{{Cite journal |title=Dice Game |journal=Decuscope |publisher=[[DECUS|Digital Equipment Computer Users Society]] |volume=3 |number=2 |page=46 |date=1964 |url=http://bitsavers.org/pdf/dec/decus/decuscope/Decuscope_Vol03_1964.pdf}}</ref> <ref name="Baseball">{{Cite web |title=basbal.dem |url=http://pdp-10.trailing-edge.com/decuslib10-01/01/43,50110/basbal.dem.html |publisher=[[DECUS|Digital Equipment Computer Users Society]] |last=Kemeny |first=John |authorlink=John G. Kemeny |date=1965-01-13 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20151222155311/http://pdp-10.trailing-edge.com/decuslib10-01/01/43,50110/basbal.dem.html |archivedate=2015-12-22 |deadurl=no}}</ref> <ref name="Marienbad">{{Cite web |url=http://gry.onet.pl/wiadomosci/slyszeliscie-kiedys-o-marienbad-pierwszej-polskiej-grze-wideo-w-historii-nie-no-to/vwwqx |title=Słyszeliście kiedyś o "Marienbad", pierwszej polskiej grze wideo w historii? Nie? No to koniecznie musicie nadrobić zaległości! |trans-title=Have you ever heard of "Marienbad", the first Polish video game ever? No? Well, you must catch up! |last=Głowacki |first=Jacek |date=2013-03-18 |work=Onet Gry |accessdate=2018-03-19 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180107061117/http://gry.onet.pl/wiadomosci/slyszeliscie-kiedys-o-marienbad-pierwszej-polskiej-grze-wideo-w-historii-nie-no-to/vwwqx |archivedate=2018-01-07 |deadurl=no |language=Polish}}</ref> <ref name="Basketball">{{Cite web |title=bskbal.gam |url=http://pdp-10.trailing-edge.com/decuslib10-01/01/43,50110/bskbal.gam.html |publisher=[[DECUS|Digital Equipment Computer Users Society]] |last=Bacheller |first=Charles |date=May 1967 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20151222170008/http://pdp-10.trailing-edge.com/decuslib10-01/01/43,50110/bskbal.gam.html |archivedate=2015-12-22 |deadurl=no}}</ref> <ref name="Baseball2">{{Cite web |title=baseba.gam |url=http://pdp-10.trailing-edge.com/decuslib10-01/01/43,50110/baseba.gam.html |publisher=[[DECUS|Digital Equipment Computer Users Society]] |last=Bergmann |first=Jacob |date=August 1967 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20151222084908/http://pdp-10.trailing-edge.com/decuslib10-01/01/43,50110/baseba.gam.html |archivedate=2015-12-22 |deadurl=no}}</ref> <ref name="dtss196810">{{Cite journal |url=http://dtss.dartmouth.edu/sciencearticle/index.html |title=Dartmouth Time-Sharing |last1=Kemeny |first1=John G. |last2=Kurtz |first2=Thomas E. |journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]] |publisher=[[American Association for the Advancement of Science]] |date=1968-10-11 |volume=162 |pages=223–228 |issn=0036-8075 |doi=10.1126/science.162.3850.223}}</ref> <ref name="dtssbrochure">{{Cite book |url=http://dtss.dartmouth.edu/brochure/ |title=The Kiewit Computation Center & The Dartmouth Time-Sharing System |publisher=[[Dartmouth College]] |date=1971}}</ref> <ref name="Replay50s">''Replay'', pp. 1–9</ref> <ref name="KINso">{{Cite journal |title=Space Odyssey: The Long Journey of Spacewar! from MIT to Computer Labs Around the World |last1=Monnens |first1=Devin |last2=Goldberg |first2=Martin |journal=Kinephanos |url=http://www.kinephanos.ca/2015/space-odyssey-the-long-journey-of-spacewar-from-mit-to-computer-labs-around-the-world/ |date=June 2015 |issue=Special Issue |issn=1916-985X}}</ref> <ref name="DEC73">''DECUS Program Library Catalog for PDP-8, FOCAL8'', p. F-1</ref> <ref name="DEC73-2">''DECUS Program Library Catalog for PDP-8, FOCAL8'', p. F-28</ref> <ref name="DEC78">''Program Library PDP-8 Catalog'', p. 83</ref> <ref name="ahl_HAM">''BASIC Computer Games'', [http://atariarchives.org/basicgames/showpage.php?page=78 pp. 78–79]</ref> <ref name="HAM_ARS">{{Cite web |url=https://arstechnica.com/gaming/2015/10/from-simcity-to-well-simcity-the-history-of-city-building-games/ |title=From SimCity to, well, SimCity: The history of city-building games |publisher=[[Ars Technica]] |last=Moss |first=Richard |date=2015-10-11 |accessdate=2016-02-04 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160203143556/http://arstechnica.com/gaming/2015/10/from-simcity-to-well-simcity-the-history-of-city-building-games/ |archivedate=2016-02-03 |deadurl=no}}</ref> <ref name="lunar_tech">{{Cite web |date=2009-07-19 |last=Edwards |first=Benj |work=[[Technologizer]] |title=Forty Years of Lunar Lander |url=http://technologizer.com/2009/07/19/lunar-lander/ |accessdate=2016-02-18 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160116075236/http://www.technologizer.com/2009/07/19/lunar-lander/ |archivedate=2016-01-16 |deadurl=no}}</ref> <ref name="lunar_comp">{{Cite journal |date=July 1994 |last=Chien |first=Philip |journal=[[Compute!]] |publisher=[[American Broadcasting Company|ABC Publishing]] |title=Blast off! |page=90 |issn=0194-357X}}</ref> <ref name="Ahl_LUNAR">''BASIC Computer Games'', [http://atariarchives.org/basicgames/showpage.php?page=106 pp. 106–109]</ref> <ref name="Ahl_CIVWAR">''BASIC Computer Games'', [http://atariarchives.org/basicgames/showpage.php?page=46 pp. 46–49]</ref> <ref name="Games_TEE">{{Cite journal |title=The Electric Eye |last=Herro |first=Mark |journal=[[Dragon (magazine)|The Dragon]] |publisher=[[TSR (company)|TSR]] |issue=38 |date=June 1980 |pages=52–54 |issn=0279-6848 |url=http://annarchive.com/files/Drmg038.pdf |accessdate=2016-02-14}}</ref> <ref name="CV_HS">''High Score'', pp 305–306</ref> <ref name="ahl_STAR">''BASIC Computer Games'', [http://atariarchives.org/basicgames/showpage.php?page=157 pp. 157–163]</ref> <ref name="ST_BL">{{Cite web |url=https://www.bell-labs.com/usr/dmr/www/spacetravel.html |title=Space Travel: Exploring the solar system and the PDP-7 |first=Dennis M. |last=Ritchie |authorlink=Dennis Ritchie |publisher=[[Bell Labs]] |date=2001 |accessdate=2016-02-04 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20151226030544/https://www.bell-labs.com/usr/dmr/www/spacetravel.html |archivedate=2015-12-26 |deadurl=no}}</ref> <ref name="ST_Byte">{{Cite news |url=https://archive.org/stream/byte-magazine-1983-08/1983_08_BYTE_08-08_The_C_Language#page/n189/mode/2up |title=The History of Unix |work=[[Byte (magazine)|Byte]] |publisher=[[McGraw-Hill Education|McGraw-Hill]] |date=August 1983 |volume=8 |number=8 |last=Fiedler |first=David |accessdate=2016-02-04 |page=188 |issn=0360-5280}}</ref> <ref name="TVGG">''The Video Games Guide'', p. 275</ref> <ref name="ST_Harvard">{{Cite web |url=http://sites.fas.harvard.edu/~lib215/reference/history/spacetravel.html |title=Yes, A video game contributed to Unix Development |first=Dennis M. |last=Ritchie |authorlink=Dennis Ritchie |publisher=[[Harvard University]] |accessdate=2016-02-04 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20151210211809/http://sites.fas.harvard.edu/~lib215/reference/history/spacetravel.html |archivedate=2015-12-10 |deadurl=no}}</ref> <ref name="baseball_GD">{{Cite magazine |last=Olsen |first=Jennifer |date=July 2001 |title=Profiles: Don Daglow—breaking typecasts |magazine=[[Game Developer (magazine)|Game Developer]] |publisher=[[UBM Technology Group]] |volume=8 |issue=7 |page=18 |issn=1073-922X}}</ref> <ref name="GDE">''Game Design Essentials'', p. 380</ref> <ref name="POMbaseball">{{Cite web |url=http://magazine.pomona.edu/2013/summer/putting-bytes-into-the-old-ball-game/ |title=Putting Bytes into the Old Ball Game |last=Kendall |first=Mark |date=2013-06-26 |work=Pomona College Magazine |publisher=[[Pomona College]] |accessdate=2016-02-19 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150919043035/http://magazine.pomona.edu/2013/summer/putting-bytes-into-the-old-ball-game/ |archivedate=2015-09-19 |deadurl=no}}</ref> <ref name="GDW">''Game Design Workshop'', p. 108</ref> }} ==Sources== * {{Cite book |title=[[BASIC Computer Games]] |last=Ahl |first=David |authorlink=David H. Ahl |edition=2nd |publisher=Workman Publishing |date=November 1978 |isbn=978-0-89480-052-8}} * {{Cite book |title=DECUS Program Library Catalog for PDP-8, FOCAL8 |url=http://pdp-8.org/scans/highgate/decus/decus_lib_73b.pdf |publisher=[[DECUS|Digital Equipment Computer Users Society]] |date=July 1973 |accessdate=2016-02-04 |archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/6f6xOaF52?url=http://pdp-8.org/scans/highgate/decus/decus_lib_73b.pdf |archivedate=2016-02-07 |deadurl=no |df= }} * {{Cite book |title=[[High Score!: The Illustrated History of Electronic Games]] |last1=DeMaria |first1=Rusel |last2=Wilson |first2=Johnny L. |publisher=[[McGraw-Hill Education|McGraw Hill/Osborne]] |edition=2nd |date=December 2003 |isbn=978-0-07-223172-4}} * {{Cite book |title=[[Replay: The History of Video Games]] |last=Donovan |first=Tristan |publisher=Yellow Ant |date=2010-04-20 |isbn=978-0-9565072-0-4}} * {{Cite book |last1=Ebbers |first1=Mike |last2=O'Brien |first2=W. |last3=Ogden |first3=B. |title=Introduction to the New Mainframe: z/OS Basics |publisher=[[IBM|IBM International Technical Support Organization]] |edition=1st |date=July 2006 |format=PDF |url=http://publibz.boulder.ibm.com/zoslib/pdf/zosbasic.pdf |accessdate=2007-06-01 |isbn=978-0-7384-9674-0}} * {{Cite book |title=The Video Games Guide: 1,000+ Arcade, Console and Computer Games, 1962-2012 |edition=2nd |last=Fox |first=Matt |publisher=[[McFarland & Company]] |date=2013-01-03 |isbn=978-0-7864-7257-4}} * {{Cite book |title=[[Game Design Workshop|Game Design Workshop: Designing, Prototyping, & Playtesting Games]] |last1=Fullerton |first1=Tracy |last2=Swain |first2=Chris |last3=Hoffman |first3=Steve |date=2004-01-03 |publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]] |isbn=978-1-57820-222-5}} * {{Cite book |title=Game Development Essentials: An Introduction |edition=3rd |last=Novak |first=Jeannie |publisher=[[Cengage Learning]] |date=2011-08-17 |isbn=978-1-111-30765-3}} * {{Cite book |title=Program Library PDP-8 Catalog |url=https://archive.org/stream/bitsavers_decdecuspratalogPDP8Aug78_9573422/DECUS_Catalog_PDP-8_Aug78_djvu.txt |publisher=[[DECUS|Digital Equipment Computer Users Society]] |date=August 1978 |accessdate=2016-02-04}} * {{Cite book |title=Understanding Digital Games |last1=Rutter |first1=Jason |last2=Bryce |first2=Jo |date=2006-05-09 |publisher=SAGE Publications |isbn=978-1-4129-0034-8}} {{History of video games}} [[Category:Mainframe games| ]] [[Category:Early history of video games]]
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Please note that all contributions to the Codex Gamicus are considered to be released under the CC BY-SA 3.0
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